Category Archives: CORNERSTONES

NATURE, CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE AS FACTORS OF LANGUAGE DIFFERENCE

The article raises the question of whether the emergence of national languages is based on three key factors: nature or the climatic conditions in which a given ethnic group lived, as well as culture and knowledge. In this context, the interrelation and interdependence between linguistic and conceptual worldviews are examined. The linguistic picture of the world is the image of reality in the consciousness of a given ethnic group, which is reflected through language, individual episodes of which still preserve people’s experiential ideas about the creation of the world. The conceptual picture of the world is constantly changing, reflecting the results of people’s cognitive and social activities. The article attempts to answer to answer the question of how the linguistic picture of the world is formed in people’s consciousness. The word is considered in its dual nature, which, depending on the historical course of a given language, the national and cultural peculiarities of depicting the world, its conceptual core and linguistic meaning, differs from language to language. Various contents are embedded in the concept: conceptual, verbal, emotional, cultural, etc. This is the reason why languages “mean” different words for the same concept, so the interlingual combination of concepts contributes to the emergence of national and international components in the content of the conceptual system of different nations. “Seeing” and “naming” the world are in the domain of interconditioning the intellectual and the spiritual. For these theoretical observations, words denoting time in old forms of Armenian, Russian, English, German and French languages were considered.

ARMENIA AS A BRIDGE OF CIVILIZATION

If we think of the book about Musa Dagh, we come to the topics of medium and memory. Anything can become a medium, but this does not make it arbitrary in terms of its content. The countless possibilities of the interrelated existence of signs find their limit(s) in the need for action that interrupts the process. Constellations (Walter Benjamin) form a series from an Armenian internal perspective that promises the eternal return of the same.

Where everything has the same effect, the question of the origin of the single event becomes interesting. However, the origin is not to be sought in an absolute beginning. Rather, the event has its own origin, which can be found in (individual) thinking and its (collective) preconditions.

The question of the origin of an event can be discussed using the example of Artsakh by asking what echo (Walter Benjamin) the loss of Artsakh has in Armenian government policy. To this end, a number of commemorative rituals and events are described against the background of and as signs of a transformation. The change in the current politics of remembrance will be questioned using a systems theory approach with regard to possible destabilization of the social system.

RUDOLF STEINER’S CRITIQUE OF KANT’S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

This article presents an examination of the critique of Kant’s epistemology by the Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy. Steiner was once accused of presenting this critique in a disorganized manner across his various philosophical works; however, his aim was not to critique Kant’s epistemology per se, but to develop fundamental and coherent and foundational epistemological foundations. He believed this was possible on the condition of breaking free from the vicious cycle of concepts within Kant’s theory of knowledge and through the scientific elaboration of the foundational approaches to cognition in Goethe’s philosophy.

The primary goal of this article has been to classify and systematically analyze the most significant concepts of Kant’s epistemology that Steiner targets in his critique—either rejecting them, as in the case of the “thing-in-itself,” or imbuing them with new content, such as the concept of “experience.” According to Steiner, the failure of traditional theories of knowledge stems from their lack of a basis in the study of the nature of cognition, and the question “what is cognition?” does not precede the question “what is cognition?” Thus, we first address how Steiner defines cognition in “Truth and Science.” We refer to Kant’s classification of the cognitive process sensory, judgmental, and rational and note that, for Steiner, the sensory aspect is considered not as cognition but merely as perception. According to him, cognition begins with conceptual observation, while he views the observation of the thinking process as the highest form of cognition.

We also examined the genealogy of Kant’s theory of knowledge according to another of Steiner’s works, “The Secrets of Philosophy,” and highlighted the contradiction that, according to Steiner, Kant resolved by accepting the limits of cognition, leading to subjectivism and dualism. We then demonstrated how Steiner reveals the errors of dualism in “The Philosophy of Freedom” and characterizes it as a necessary intermediate stage to be overcome in the process of cognition. The world is given to us as duality, while cognition processes it into unity. Kant’s “thing-in-itself” is nothing but an empty abstraction; the supposed separation of consciousness from the “thing-in-itself” is an illusion. In cognition, the boundaries between essence and phenomenon dissolve, and the phenomenon presents itself to us as a manifested essence. Even if it presents itself to us as an idea, this is only at the initial stage of simple perception and observation of the phenomenon, whereas in the cognitive process, the impartial and objective nature of thought connects and unifies the diversity of perceptions and observations, resulting in ideas being recognized and ceasing to be merely ideas.

In this article, we also explored the differences between Kant’s and Steiner’s understandings of “experience” as defined in Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason” and Steiner’s “The Epistemological Foundations of Goethe’s Worldview,” demonstrating the new content that Steiner attributes to this concept, arguing that thinking should also be regarded as a fact of experience. We illustrated how Steiner describes the process of thinking becoming unrecognized due to the focus on the object, asserting that without thought, the image of the world cannot be considered either objective or complete, and that it would be entirely arbitrary to regard the sum of what we know about an object solely through perception as a complete whole, while the result of thoughtful observation is seen as something additional that has no connection to the object itself.

Theres is an attempt to show how Steiner refutes Kant’s approach that limits cognition based on the capacities of the human spirit, asserting that our spiritual organization inherently includes the ability for fully adequate knowledge of things; otherwise, knowledge would be impossible.

HISTORIOGRAPHY VERSUS MEMORY – 2024-3

The relevance of reinterpreting the “Old days”

Sergey A. Aghajanyan
Doctor of Philological Sciences

Summary

Keywords – being, history, repetition of history, inevitability of reinterpretation, qualities of identity, history of identity, the Great Patriotic War, historiography of Soviet Armenians, barrack socialism, tragedy, symbolic scenes.

The already densely populated world is a multicolored and diverse complex of human cultural activities, which is shaped by the well-established identity of each nation that still exists. Apart from the qualities of their identity, neither these cultures nor the peoples who embody them can guarantee of existence and prospects for life. As the most important factors in the historical process, these qualities shape relevant behavior towards existing challenges, making their bearers viable or doomed. This is why the historical process, shaped by peoples and their value system, becomes either a controlled stream or a stream that irreversibly destroys everything.

The historical process is not as easy to analyze as material for a sober analysis. No coexistence can be guaranteed survival and development without a retrospective review and rethinking of the path traveled. At the same time, it is extremely important that this necessary scientific activity be conducted, especially in the search for the cause of failures, first of all, internally, in the qualities of one’s own identity and the national behavior that they engender.

The process of retrospective reassessment and rethinking, especially in modern times, can only be effective if it becomes a mandatory methodological practice for sociological thought. After all, for active culture-forming communities, the days have long passed when the people’s spontaneous worldview shaped the value system and behavioral norms of society.

Retrospective assessment, or rather, reassessment-reinterpretation, is one of the priorities of updating our historical consciousness. This is also imposed upon us by the 30-year stage of our modern history, which began with a heroic impulse rooted in national interests, which, unfortunately, ends with irreversible human, material, moral and psychological losses.

CURRENT TRENDS IN GENOCIDE RESEARCH – 2024-1

Summary

Suren A. Manukyan
Ph.D. in History

In its fifth decade of development, the field of Genocide studies continue the exploration of many fundamental topics that have been central since its foundation. The phenomenon of genocide, encompassing its underlying causes, the actors involved, the methods of execution, and the enduring consequences, remains a focal point of attention for specialists from a range of disciplines, including history, political science, law, sociology, psychology, and more.

Several core themes have endured throughout this field’s evolution, such as the definition of the term “genocide,” the categorization of mass murders, intergroup conflicts, the construction of overarching narratives for individual genocides, the strategies and technologies employed in mass killings, the behaviors of both perpetrators and victims, third-party complicity and indifference, the influence of international relations and geopolitics, as well as the role of war and ideologies in the initiation and progression of genocides. Moreover, the portrayal of these crimes and tragedies in art remains a significant aspect of study.

Nevertheless, new trends have emerged, significantly reshaping the field and, in some cases, bringing about revolutionary change. Notably, the scope of examined cases has expanded beyond recognized genocides to include lesser- known incidents, forgotten genocides, mass atrocities, and war crimes. Much like in other social science disciplines, individual case studies and micro-narratives have gained prominence, effectively complementing larger narratives and, at times, challenging established paradigms. The role of colonial and imperial policies has come to the forefront in explaining these crimes, altering the traditional scientific basis. Memories and testimonies of survivors have been freed from their prejudicial labels and now hold an equal place in scholarly investigations.

Comparative genocide studies also remain a promising research method, despite recognition of certain inherent challenges.
Finally, there is an ongoing effort within the field of genocide studies to transition from a purely theoretical, descriptive, and analytical discipline into a practical and applied branch of science. While the prevention of genocides has not been successful, researchers persist in their endeavors, developing various models and delving deeper into the essence of the genocide phenomenon, contributing to the broader effort to combat these heinous acts.

REFERENCES

1.Bartʻikyan M., Arnashaghakh Izmirĕ, Ohanēs (Onnik) Ghazerean, Kensagrakan notʻer (ed. Tʻehmine Martoyan), Yer., Hayotsʻ tsʻeghaspanutʻyan tʻangaran-institut himnadram, 2022(in Armenian).
2.Manukyan S., Tsʻeghaspanagitutʻjan hantsʻagortsutʻyunĕ kankhargelelu yev patzhelu masin konventsʻiayi kirarman hnaravorutʻyunnern u dzhvarutʻyunnerĕ, Haykakan kʻaghakʻagitakan handes, N 1(15), 2021 (in Armenian).
3.Manukyan S., Tsʻeghaspanagitutʻyunĕ vorpes gitachugh. Dzevavorman yev zargatsʻman patmutʻyunĕ, “Vēm”, N 3 (67), 2019 (in Armenian).
4.Manukyan S., Tsʻeghaspanagitutʻyunneri gitakan dasakargumneri hartsʻi shurj,
Tsʻeghaspanagitutʻyan handes, 2, 2021(in Armenian).
5.Matʻosyan T., Hayotsʻ tsʻeghaspanutʻyan yev hreakan Holokʻost. Hamematman pʻordz, Yer., 2005 (in Armenian).
6.Poghosyan N., Hayotsʻ tsʻeghaspanutʻyan khndirĕ Rafayel Lemkini usumnasirutʻyunnerum, Yer., Hayotsʻ tsʻeghaspanutʻyan tʻangaran-institut himnadram, 2020(in Armenian).
7.Poturean G., Taragir husher 1915-1917 (ed.Mihran A. Minasean), Yer., Hayotsʻ tsʻeghaspanutʻyan tʻangaran-institut himnadram, 2022 (in Armenian).

THE FALL OF ARTSAKH – 2023-4

A historical tragedy and an alarm for the Republic of Armenia

Otto Joh. Luchterhandt (Hamburg, Germany)

The article covers the recent events in Artsakh in the context of regional
geopolitical interests and international law. It is shown that Azerbaijan and Turkey have violated international law with their aggressive war against Nagorno-Karabakh and that Azerbaijan’s threats against the Republic of Armenia also violate the prohibition of the use of force established by international law (Article 2, (4), UN Charter).

Although Azerbaijan’s aggressive policy completely contradicted the current
international law, Azerbaijan was able to succeed because not only Russia but also the entire international community stopped acting on the Karabakh issue. The participation of NATO member Turkey was decisive for the outcome of the 44-day war. Azerbaijan would also have lost in that Karabakh war, a war contradicting international law, if Turkey and the Syrian mercenaries did not take part in it.

The end of the Republic of Artsakh and the mass migration of Karabakh
Armenians were a drastic turning point in the history of the Armenian people, and the Armenian Diaspora spread throughout the world. The catastrophe unwittingly evokes memories of the Genocide that took place in the Ottoman state during the First World War, even if its dimensions are incomparable. The shock associated with the fall of Artsakh is perhaps even greater because it happened in front of the eyes of the world community, which, compared to 100 years ago, not only knows international law, genocide, and human rights but also often demands great sensitivity in this regard.

The disastrous consequences of the collapse and loss of Karabakh hit
Armenia at a time when its international political conditions have become significantly complicated, firstly, by Russia’s war against Ukraine, and secondly, by Russia’s still intensifying confrontation with the “collective West.” The war of Hamas against Israel and the resulting tensions in the entire Islamic-Arab region have led to the fact that the conditions for Armenia have become more unfavorable and unpredictable. Under these conditions, the Armenian government can avoid the risk of becoming a victim of new military attacks like in the remaining part of Karabakh only by continuing to maintain traditional close allied relations with Russia and neighborly relations with Iran and by involving the EU in its efforts to resolve its national problems with Azerbaijan and Turkey.

With the flight of more than 100,000 compatriots within a week, the issues
and the challenges facing the Republic of Armenia are enormous. It is possible to overcome these challenges only in conditions of striving with the forces of all state bodies and institutions, public organizations, broad citizen solidarity, willingness to help, and the generous support of the Diaspora.