Category Archives: CORNERSTONES

Part Two. Ernst Bernheim and psychophysical principle of causality

Summary 

Gevorg S. Khudinyan

Ernst Bernheim (1850-1942) is one of the most original figures of European historiography of the late 19th and early 20th century. By means of published books, he formed a specific system of knowledge concerning the theoretical problems of history. He continued and deepened the best traditions of anthropocentric knowledge of the history of Jo. Droysen, also resorting to the help of the principle of psychophysical causality, which was proposed by B. Spinoza and specified by H. Lotze. The particularity of Bernheim’s study of the relationship and interdependence of the two forms of psychophysical causation – mental and physical, as well as the three levels of their manifestation – single typical and collective, is to examine the history as a the development process. It was carried out in a number of double causality – the common causes and conditions and special conditions, including the fact surveyed as part of them.

Clarifying for himself the ratio of pair units of psychophysical causation, E. Bernheim took as a basis the problem of the particular historical review of their capabilities of transformation into functional reasons of development in the historical process, the study of mutual relations and the definition of the functional role of each in different conditions.

Basic elements of Hans-Georg Gadamer’s” universal hermeneutics” concept

Summary

Achot V. Voskanian

In his “Truth and Method” H.-G. Gadamer contra posed the concept of “universal hermeneutics” against the analytic methods prevailing in the humanities during the sixties of the last century. This paper is an attempt to present the basic elements of this concept in a systematic way. Special attention is paid to the notion of “Bildung” (the German for “education as a formation”). For Gadamer “Bildung” is first of all a formation, in which the result and the process are combined. It is not confined to the external goal of a simple knowledge transfer, since the formation of an individual passing the path to knowledge is itself the main goal. Since the implementation of the Humboldian concept of “Bildung” in the University of Berlin the classic education in humanities was seen as a universal value. Contemporary debates about the nature of university education (the paper considers the views of J. Habermas, M. Naumann, Jean-François Lyotard, on that matter) show the relevance of controversy, as reflected in the title of the main book of H.-G.Gadamer.

Part One: Johann Droysen and “Historica”

Summary

Gevorg S. Khudinyan

The article looks at the refinement process of new theoretical and methodological principles of history worked out by Droysen research while the crisis of objectivist epistemology was actual.

Separation and distinction of historiography from the undamental sciences, as well as the sciences of humanity was first held by Droysen in lectures which became the first expression of holistic theory of history. Their summary has been published under the name “Sketches on Historics” in 1858 and later, the monumental work of J. Droysen “Lectures on Encyclopedia and Methodology of history” was posthumously published.

Proceeding from the ideas of W. Wundt (the founder of psychology), Droysen probed that the main achievement of historian is not a simple reflection on “real” events of the past, but the establishment of their sign (Zeichen). Otherwise, it is not possible to cope with “the double subjectivism” of the author of the source which in its turn makes the historian to spread the principles of natural sciences on history.

Siranush G. Hovhannisyan

Summary

The article focuses on the connection between the objective reality, inner world of a person and linguistic system of signs. It presents how a person starts to recognize the real world, how a sensual world comes into existence in a person. Accordingly, we differentiate three types of human existence – perceptional, intellectual and physical. It is shown how the outer world is reflected in the inner world of a person and how it is designated. It is underlined that the part of a person’s existence which becomes complete due to perceptional existence is mainly designated by means of nonlinguistic signs. A linguistic sign is conditional when it has the mission of naming a big and continually growing feeling. Such an emotional experience may be designated also by a motivated sign, which will not be a linguistic sign any more. All the linguistic signs have only one nonlinguistic synonym – silence. Thus, we can conclude that on the one hand the continuously growing feeling can be estranged by adjusting to the corresponding linguistic sign and on the other hand it can be estranged by the one and only nonlinguistic synonym – silence. In the last case the appointer of the linguistic segment being estranged is quite reasonable.

Text, Narrative, Interpretation

Summary

Albert A. Stepanyan
The paper deals with the fundamental aspects of historical study and writing. The focus of them makes the personality of the historian being involved in cultural texts of the present and past. His dialogue with the «voices» of different epochs is one of the main components of historical reflection. In its turn, it motivates the scope and essence of the «questioning» of the past and opening the way to overpassing the imaginative ambiguity of the past and memory. This makes the real start of historical investigation comprising the activity of the historian from the verification of historical facts to their clustering in textual and narrative units. Only in this consequence, the interpretation of single events and large historical blocks are possible. They open the content and essence of history. And the historian gains ability of answering the fundamental questions of his investigation formulated far back by Herodotus – how, when, and why?

In the context of “Great repatriation” and international experience

Summary

Lusine. A. Gevorgyan
At present the Republic of Armenia is facing a number of serious migratory challenges, the first of which is the migration of the Armenians from the country at a rapid pace. Taking into account the situation, the Republic of Armenian should take steps to slow down the paces of migration and pave the way for the opposite process – repatriation.

To find the proper resolution for the following main issues, some adjustments should be made in the relevant laws of the RA, moreover, it is necessary to make some structural changes in the corresponding organs of the RA, which would help to clarify the functional responsibilities of each and to ensure fair and honest activity.

On the trajectory of Kh. Abovyan’s romantism and literary movements of the 19th century

Summary

Souren D. Danielian
Romantic direction had composed the first stage and had prepared successive process periods in the sources of Armenian new and newest literature. In this article substantiates the exclusive role of Khachatur Abovian in the first steps of Armenian new literature, for his this literature is the expression of romantic breath, the impact of imagination and reality, establishment of ideals. Due to Khachatur Abovian the way of Armenian literature new way we named Abovianian. To collect in different times the attitude and displaying of Armenian and Russian literary mention (Nshan Mouradian, Arsen Terterian, Arshak Chopanian, Sergey Sarinian, Hrand Tamrazian, Eduard Jrbashian, Viktor Vanslov, Andrey Dmitriev and others) to realism and romanticism, we have concluded that the gradual changes of literature have been in the spotlight of possession of romanticism. Khachatur Abovian (in the 19th century, first half), Petros Dourian (the end of 60’s of 19th century and beginning of 70’s), Raffi (70-80’s of 19th century) and Daniel Varoujan (beginning of 20th century) were theoretical ground for separate literature movements and periodical forms. And their creative achievements, as a matter of fact, were become the basis for the development of Armenian New Literature main periods. We have tried to establish that the strong conflict between romanticism and realism was the great stimulus for growing of Armenian Literature, his inseparable richness.

The poorness of Pierre Nora’s ”facts” against the law of criminalization of the Armenian Genocide’s denying

Summary

Armen Ts. Maruqyan

It is shown in the article that the arguments about the Jewish Shoah and unique nature of the “law of Geyso” of the eminent historian, founder and president of the organization “Freedom for history” Pierre Nora, who is involved in political manipulations against the acceptance of law of the criminalization of Armenian Genocide’s denying on January 23, 2012, are not able to stand against scientific criticism. If Nora is against “memorial laws”, then he must be also against “Law of Geyso”, in other case there is no difference between these two genocides.

As to the statement of Nora about the idea that the acceptance of “law of Geyso” was the moral duty of France, as that country had some role in the Jewish holocaust, then the policy of France after the I World War can prove that this country has the same moral duty also for the Armenian Genocide.

The point of view of Nora about the limitation of retroactive effect of laws only for Holocaust is directly contrary to the “United Nations’ Convention of November 26, 1968 about not to apply any the period of limitation over war crimes and crimes against humanity”. By this document the international law of not to apply the principle of time limitation for all cases without exception for the crimes, including the UN Convention on Genocide of 1948, was put into circulation.

To the misgivings of Nora to judge the past by the criteria of the present and to make the history of mankind become a history of genocides the author of the article indicated that, first, independently of the application of the definition of “genocide” the Armenian Genocide was qualified by the Entente powers, including France as a “crime against humanity”. Already in 1915 what happened with the Armenians was considered a crime, based on the Convention of Hague in 1899 about “laws and customs of war” and particularly, on the “spirit of the laws of humanity” of Martens’ reservation, that is, it was estimated to be a crime only based on the existing international legal norms.

In addition, in accordance with the United Nations Convention of 1948 about the “Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide”, to qualify a massacre as a genocide it is necessary to prove that the intention of the organizers of this crime has been to completely or partially destroy the group as such. It is shown in the article that this provision is equally applicable to both the Armenian Genocide and the Jewish Holocaust cases.

The problem of hierarchization of genocides according to Pierre Nora

Summary

Smbat Kh. Hovhannisyan
The article is an attempt to analyze in general outline and by some main accents Pierre Nora’s concept about the bill of criminalization of Armenian genocide’s denial in France. On one hand it is considered in the overview of his theory about “memory and history” and on the other hand – in the general overview of theories about history and memory.
It’s notable that P. Nora makes reasonable connections between the idea of freedom and the freedom of history (consequently also historiography), where this principle is very important and perspective. Though, some of his approaches impede the structural discussion concerning memory and commitment. First of all, we mean not only the weakness of his arguments on the bill of criminalization of Armenian genocide’s denial, but also the denial of the genocide as history, moreover, the contrasting of Armenian genocide with Holocaust and the determination of gradation between them, even in the case when Armenians were not only subjected to Genocde in 1915, but also to Patricide (depatriated).

Summary

Gagik. S. Galstyan
The article is an attempt to estimate K. Marx’s economic theory. The following statements are defined for this purpose: First – which were the real goals of Marx; Second – to which extent the categories constructed and implemented by Marx are realistic; Third – the possibility to implement the Marxist theory in solving economic and social problems of modern society.