Category Archives: APPENDIX

Summary

Ararat M. Hakobyan

Key words – repression, J. Stalin, fear, interrogation, A. Khanjyan, treachery, trial, prison, A. Amatuni, Dashnak, anti-revolutionary, investigator, Troika, military tribunal, execution.

The collapse of the Soviet regime in 1991 put an end to the monopoly of the CPSU in the territory of the former USSR. Certain conditions were created in the post-Soviet space for the reassessment of certain pages of history. One of the similar periods in USSR, including Armenia, were the repressions of 1937.

We, as well as many researchers are convinced that the policy of repressions was not due solely to Stalin’s personality, his character and cruelty, but proceeded from the Marxist-Leninist doctrine, from the ideological foundations of the Communist Party, as according to their vision all anti-revolutionary, Trotskyist and other so-called «ideologically antagonistic» elements had to be eliminated so that the true communist society could be formed in the Soviet Union and, if possible, in the whole world.

The unique and difficult past of the historical and political development of tsarist Russia also left a mark on the dictatorial character of Soviet power, the successor to autocratic Russia.

The repressive policy was applied practically from the first days of the Soviet power, it lasted in the following decades, and the peak of the repressions was in 1937.

In the mid-1950s, when criticism of the cult of personality began, the blame for repressions was unilaterally imposed only on Stalin. This was done in order to somehow save the reputation of the CPSU. It is also obvious that other leaders involved in this black case, tried to avoid personal responsibility. The reality is that Stalin adhered and consistently followed the Leninist course, while other leaders, out of fear or out of conviction, approved of his policy.

After Stalin’s death (1953), the repressions were greatly reduced. As a result of changes in the international and domestic situation, repressions took a more hidden and mild form, the methods of violence and persecutions changed.

Based on the false position of further aggravation of the class struggle, the party-state bodies formed an unhealthy socio-political atmosphere of distrust, fear and betrayal, in order to put pressure on people. In consequence of this policy, people often reported to each other without any grounds to expose the so-called «enemies of the people».

Mostly through false testimony, torture during interrogations, falsification of signatures and other methods, «confessions» were often extorted, groundless accusations, court judgments were made. Judicial proceedings lasted only 15-20 minutes and military tribunals or Trojkas sentenced thousands of innocent people to 1 category (execution) and the second category (prison and exile).

According to available data, in 1920-1953 the total number of repressed people in Armenia was about 42,000. The most absurd is that the authorities of Soviet Armenia periodically received from Moscow a concrete plan on how many «enemies of the people» they should expose, and the Armenian government has always exceeded its plan to emphasize its adherence to the ideas of Marxism-Leninism and socialism. Planning the economy for the Soviet system can be understandable, but the fact that even the human life was planned, proves that the system was dictatorial.

Our observations of a thousand terminated and declassified court cases in the fund 1191 of the Armenian National Archive show that in the 1930s there were no political or anti-Soviet, terrorist, Trotskyist, Dashnak and nationalist groups and organizations in Armenia. The reality is that there were some individuals, writers and intellectuals in Armenia, who were concerned by the problems facing their country and the Armenian people, so they expressed a desire that the unjustly occupied lands of Armenia, such as Kars, Karabakh, Surmalinsky district, Nakhchivan and others were returned to Armenia.

80 years after political repressions, our observations allow not only to restore the historical reality and pay tribute to thousands of innocent victims, but also provide an instructive lesson for those who have dictatorial tendencies and send a message to democratic states and civil society so that they live and never forget about freedom and justice.

Summary

Gegham M. Badalyan

Key words – Headmost villages, Holoyan-Petoyan, Talvorik, Khut-Brnashen, Hazo city, Khulp, Isyan princedom, Kharzan princedom, Taghi glukh, vicar church of Karmrak Surb Nshan, Aver meidan, Avekhu district, Tsaprkoru district, Gomotz district, St. John The Baptist of Amirdol, Khndrakatar Surb Astvatsatsin.

This article is devoted to the historical-geographical district of Sasun and to the town Bitlis. The district of Sasun, which occupies the most part of the southwestern province of Bitlis, has a unique place in the history of Armenia. Until the beginning of the 20th century, Sasun was the place where fragments of Armenian statehood were preserved. Semi-independent Armenian rule of Sasun was a federation of several noble families, where the dominant family was the Holo dynasty (Peto) with its branches. In Sasun an important role was also played by the Princes (Ishkhans) of Talvorik, Kajarents, Bermtsi and Asetsi. It should be noted that in some parts of Sasun (Khut-Brnashen, Kharzan or inland Sasun) in the 18-19th centuries there were mixed-national autonomous units, where, equally with the Armenians, the Yezidis and Kurds, who had penetrated into Sasun in the 15th and 16th centuries, had managerial rights. It should also be noted that members of the local Armenian council retained their high position and privileges in the west of Sasun (Koghb or Khulp) and in the southeast (Hazo-Khabiljos or Hazvan), where semi-independent Kurdish governments (hükümet) were formed. The most important role of Sasun is also visible in the preservation of the Armenian armed forces. A number of facts make it possible to assert that the military forces of the districts of Upper Sasun (Shatakh, Tsovasar, Talvorik, Psank, Ishkhandzor) reached 4-4.5 thousand as a whole in the 80-90s of the 19th century. Unfortunately, as a result of the treacherous policies of the Ottoman state power in the late 19th century, the Armenian rule of Sasun was significantly weakened and lost its positions. Nevertheless, in the 1890s, the Armenians of Sasun again assumed the role of the flagship of the struggle for freedom, rebelling against the Turkish-Kurdish dictatorship. The tragic events of 1894 and 1904 did not break the rebellious spirit of the Sasun Armenians. Moreover, despite the large losses, the overwhelming majority of the population in Sasun until 1915 was still Armenian, i. e. 55000-60000 people. Meanwhile, the population of Upper Sasun was only Armenian. The tragic year of 1915 was a year of severe trials for the heroic Sasun. The advantage of the enemy did not discourage the freedom-loving inhabitants of Sasun, who had been in battle for life and dignity for the last six months. With terrible losses, 11,000 Armenians from various provinces of Sasun were able to move to Taron in 1916, whence they moved to Eastern Armenia, where they made a great contribution to the noble cause of gaining Armenia’s independence. It should be noted that even the infernal conditions could not completely destroy these mighty people of the sacred land. And even today the Armenian highlanders live lives in some parts of Sasun.

The mountainious town of Bitlis (Baghesh) was a well-known handicraft and trade center of Western Armenians. But Bitlis was famous primarily for his spiritual and cultural centers. In the late Middle Ages, the monasteries and churches of St. John the Baptist of Amlordvo (Amirdolu), St. Astvadzedzin (the mother of God) (the monastery of Saint Thaddeus), Surb Karapet Tsaprkoru, Khndrakatar of St. Mary’s, Tatraakabnak St. Astvadzedzin (the mother of God) or the monastery Gomots, Karmrak (Karmirak) surb Nshan or St. Kirakos were known here. Turkish-Kurdish violence had serious negative consequences also for this densely populated Armenian city, where in 1915 the Armenian population was sharply reduced to 10,00011,000 (total of 30,000). Despite this, Armenians were engaged in trade and crafts in the city before 1915. The Armenian Genocide almost completely destroyed this part of the Armenians in their homeland.

This article summarizes the study of the demographic situation in 1914 in the three most important vilayets of Western Armenia – Van, Erzurum and Bitlis. It should be noted that the current study, which covers mainly the borders of Wilsonian Armenia, will be continued. We are planning, after some pause, to proceed to other vilayets in order to complete the study of the historical and demographic image of Western Armenia on the eve of the Armenian Genocide.

Summary

Siranush A. Beglaryan

Key words – Sirarpie Der-Nersesyan, Erwin Panofsky, Myrtilla Avery, André Grabar, Wellesley College, method, connoisseur, approach, medievalist, art historian.

This article is the addendum to our translation of the curriculum named “The Direct Approach in The Study of Art History”, which Sirarpie Der-Nersesyan proposed in the US. By referring to the author’s text, we attached great importance not that much to the curriculum but to the issues of art history and art study raised by the scientist who proposed a method.

In the beginning, we gave a brief summary of the method content, then sum it up by introducing the origin of the method.

We touched upon the issue of interpretation in the method and within this issue we represented the connection between the method she proposed and her studies by using one of her monographs.

We dwelt on the practice of description in the study of art by stressing its significance and the exact purpose factor both in the method of studying art proposed by Sirarpie Der-Nersesyan and directly in her studies.

The translated material is unique in its nature. Left out of the biography texts, it was overlooked, whereas the existence of the text reveals both Sirarpie Der-Nersesyan’s activities in the US as a scientist and art historian and in some way her contribution in strengthening a newly formed discipline. In this article, we tried to show Sirarpie Der-Nersesyan’s views on art study and on the issues of representing it, and also indicate the relation of Armenian medieval art historians to this method of study, which has become common to them.

Part seven: South-eastern districts of Bitlis vilayet

Summary

Gegham M. Badalyan

Keywords – Aznvatsdzor, Tatik, Khizan district, KhizanGyavrner, Shenadzor, Sparkert, Mamrtank, Upper Karkar, Sgherd city, Barvari, Vozm township, Shirvan Arvakh-Eruh.

The article presents the southeastern administrative units of Bitlis Vilayet: small districts (in Turkish – nahiye) of Bagesh city – Aznvadzor, Tatik, Parkhand, Khultik-Nagia and Shatakh, which were under the direct governor control, the province of Khizan in full (with central districts Khizan-Gyavrner, Shenadzor, Sparkert, Mamrtank and Lower Karkar), sanjak’s center with the same name – Sgerd city and Barvar province, Shirvan province, and Arvakh or Eruh under Sgherd’s governor control (in Turkish – mutasarrif), where on the eve of the First world war I Armenians made up the vast majority (50% or more). Such administrative units were Aznvatsdzor and Tatik (Baghesh’d central region), as well as Khizan’s districts – Shenadzor, Sparkert, Mamrtank. And in Parkhand and Lower Karkar Armenians constituted the majority of the population (above 70%). Unfortunately, in this part of the Bitlis vilayet one could also meet the areas cleared of Armenians that was a result of the influx of new nomadic Kurdish tribes from northern Mesopotamia in the 1st half of the 19th century. The Kurdish national movement, led by Bardkhan in the 1840s, and the Ottoman State’s powerful military retaliation in response also played no less negative role. Moreover, it was fatal also for semi-independent Armenian authorities surviving in these areas. As a result, many parts of the provinces Khizan and Tsgherd were filled mainly by Kurds.

Part six: The northern, eastern and western provinces of Bitlis vilayet

Summary

Gegham M. Badalyan

Key words – Bulanukh, St. Daniel Monastery, Liz melikate, Yondzhalu melikate, Manazkert, Vardo, Datvan-Rahva, Genji, Chapaghdzhur, self-defense of the Upper Bulanukh.

We would like to present to the reader’s attention the following districts of 3 sanjaks of Bitlis Vilayet – Bulanukh, Manazkert, Vardo (Mush sanjak), Khlat or Akhlat with a small district – Datvan Rahva (Bitlis central sanjak), Genji, Chapaghdzhur (Genji sanjak). These administrative units occupied the northern, eastern and western parts of the vilayet. Among the most Armenian-populated areas of Western Armenia were Bulanukh and Khlat (with Datvan). In these administrative units the Armenian population was overwhelming until 1915, particularly in the first two districts – 65-68%, and in the group of Datvan villages – 90%. The number of the Armenian population in other districts has declined due to well-known circumstances, although here, too, on the eve of the First World War one could still find many “islands” of the Armenian population. Genji and Chapaghdzhur sanjaks and Vardo village especially suffered from ethnic cleansing resulting from regular devastating battles that were motivated by Kurdish elders in the 18-19 centuries and were accompanied by mass penetration of new tribes. In the 30-40-ies of the 19th century the Turkish government was deliberately populating by Kurds most of the land abandoned by the Armenians, and the 60-70-ies of the same century they were joined by the Caucasian mountaineers and some Turkic-speaking ethnic groups. As a result of such a policy at the end of the 19th century the districts of Manazkert, Vardo, Genji and Chapaghdzhur significantly lost their national character, becoming areas mainly populated by alien tribes.

Part five: the province Mush of Bitlis’ Vilayet

Summary

Gegham M. Badalyan

Keywords – Taron, the city of Mush, Chhur-Chukhur, ZiaretHandrez, Aghdzhan-Kosur, St. Karapet, Srbots Arakelots monastery, surb Hovhannes monastery in Egrdute, Havatamq Mountains, Serokov Mountains, Seghansar, Baghlu melikate.

A serie dedicated to Bitlis is going to begin with this article about Mush city and Mush province, which was the most densely populated by Armenians vilayet in Western Armenia. Mush Province was one of the most populated provinces of Western Armenia. On the eve of the Armenian Genocide, their number was greater than 95,000 (including the city of Mush). It was about 37% of all Armenians of Bitlis Vilayet, and 68% of the provincial population. Moreover, without taking into account the population, the Armenians were to ¾ of Mush province. In this respect, Mush was also one of the most populated provinces of Western Armenia. Armenians have been distributed in 111 rural settlements of the province, in 33 of which the population was more than 1000 people. While in Ahdzhan, Avran, Ziaret and Vardenis there were from about 2000 to 3000 people, and in Norshen and Tsronk – 4000 Armenian residents. Even more Armenians were in Hasgegh (5,000 inhabitants), which was, one might say, the largest rural settlement in Western Armenia. The article also separately presented the city of Mush, Taron’s 3 famous monastery – SaintKarapet, Saint-Apostolic, and Saint Hovhannes of Eghrdut. The article also referred to the Upper Chkhur that was the eastern part of the historic Taron and by administrative division subordinated to the governor of Bitlis. The article also referred to the Armenian semi-independent melikate Baghlu, which survived until the 40s of the 19th century.

Part four: eastern and southern provinces of Erzurum vilayet

Summary

Gegham M. Badalyan

Keywords – Basen,­Tortum,­Nariman,­Hınıs,­Kehi,­sanjak­of­Bayazet,­Bayazet­city,­Artsap,­Bagavan,­Karakilisa,­Alashkert,­Dutagh-Antab.

Continuing the series devoted to historical geography and demography of Western Armenia, we present to the reader the eastern and southern provinces of Erzurum vilayet – Basen, Tortum, Nariman or Mamrvan, Hınıs, Kehi (all in the central sanjak of Erzurum), as well as the town of Bayazet and the homonymous province, Diadin, Karakilisa , Alashkert and Dutah or Antab (all as part of the 3rd sanjak of the province – Bajazet). Armenians were driven away from some of the aforementioned provinces almost entirely. The persecution of the Armenian population began during the Ottoman-Persian wars in the 16-17 centuries. Only Shah Abbas I organized in 1604-1605 the migration of Armenians in many eastern provinces of Western Armenia, including in all administrative units, which are discussed in this article: About 60,000 people were expelled in the Ararat region, and then driven away to the depth of the Persian Empire. This process continued in the 18th century and in the first 30 years of the 19th century. Nevertheless, the process of the expulsion of Armenians from their historical homeland has reached truly catastrophic levels after the conquest of the Eastern Armenia from the Russian Empire. All three Russian-Turkish wars of the 19th century (18281829, 1854-1856 and 1877-1878) have had terrible consequences for those regions. Among these violent expulsions stands out particularly the big migration of Western Armenians in the period of 1829-1830, when only from sanjak Bajazet more than 2,500 families have been displaced mainly in Sevan basin, as well as in Surmalu, in eastern Chirac and other eastern provinces, as a result of which, Bajazet and many other villages and settlements were emptied. The demographic situation has changed to the detriment of Armenians also in Basen, Tekman (at the beginning of the 20th century was the northern part of the province Ķinis) in Tortum and Nariman-Mamrvan. It is in those times that ethno-demographic picture of Central Armenia was completely distorted. Immediately after the forced relocation of Armenians, Kurdish tribes began to settle in areas, which was strongly encouraged by the Turkish authorities and marked the beginning of a gradual “kurdization” of Western Armenia. As a result of such relocations, the Armenians, and, naturally, their ratio has been declining. In addition, in 1877 the city of Bajazet and many villages of the sanjak have been attacked by Kurdish brigands of fanatical Sheikh Jalaleddin, who was supported by the Turkish military authorities. During the robbery, the local Armenian population was almost completely destroyed (number of victims exceeded 2200). In fact, this should be considered as a precedent of the Armenian Genocide committed in 1890 by the bloody Sultan Abdul-Hamid II. However, among those provinces there are also some, where in spite of the Turkish policy of destruction, Armenian population could preserve their ethnic Armenian territory and numerical superiority until the Genocide. We are talking primarily about Hınıs and Kehi. The Armenian population of Basen was also quite significant

Part three: central and western provinces of Erzurum vilayet and the cities of Erzurum (Karin) and Erznka

Summary

Gegham M. Badalyan

Keywords – Vilayet of Erzurum, Erzurum (city), Erznka (city), Erzurum province, Derdzhan province, Bayburt (Baberd) province, Kamakh province, İspir province, Kiskim (Berdagrak) province, Khotorjur (Sırakonak).

The article presents the list of the Armenian-populated areas by individual districts (Kaza in Turkish) in Western Armenia on the eve of the Armenian Genocide and villages (in the tour. Nahiye) in the vilayet of Erzurum. Lists are made up of the same principles that have been applied in the case of Van province: the list includes villages, churches, monasteries, schools and different information about the collections of manuscripts and books. In addition, it presents statistical data on the Armenian population in the most densely populated areas (city, district, town, village, large village).

Part two: the southern and western districts of Van’s Vilayet and the town of Van

Summary

Gegham M. Badalyan

Key words – Vilayet of Van, the city of Van, Armenian semiindependent principalities, Akhtamar Catholicosate, Assyrian region, Gavash (Rshtunik), Kartchkan and Ketsan, Upper Karkar, Mox (district of Mox), Shatakh, Norduz, Aghbak, Monastery of the Holy Apostle Bartholomew, Gyavar and Dzhulamerik, Aram Manukyan.

We represent to the reader the second part of our research dedicated to the clarification of the demographic image of Western Armenia on the eve of the Armenian Genocide; the study includes rural and urban areas of south-western, southern and partly south-eastern provinces of Van’s vilayet.

In the series, representing rural and urban areas of south-western, southern and partly south-eastern districts of Van’s Vilayet populated by Armenians we can list the following districts and villages: in the district (sancak) Van – Gavash (Rshtunik), Kartchkan (with Ketsan), Mox, Upper Karkar, Shatakh, Norduz also from the province of Akkari – Aghbak, Gyavar and Dzhulamerik. The provinces of the first group (except Norduz) were mostly Armenian populated before the Genocide – 55-62%, and in the Upper Karkara more than 70% of the population were Armenians.

This phenomenon has 3 main reasons: 1) up to 60-ies of XIX century the abovementioned provinces were populated almost exclusively by Armenians, 2) Some semi-independent principalities called Melicatus still preserved in Mox and Shatakh, 3) separated provinces were part of the Diocese of the Catholicosate of Aghtamar Island and the church of the Holy Cross was mobilizing center for local Armenians.

As for the second group of regions (nahiye) of Van vilayet, on the eve of the Genocide Armenians were a minority there due to the fact that the massacres and forced migration of Armenians almost did not stop there from the middle of the XIX century.

The article also includes the regional center – the city of Van. As in the first part here, too, the reader is provided by historical, demographic, and other data about the largest administrative units and major population centers. Armenian historical monuments are also well presented. At the end of the article the reader will find general geographical and statistical information on the entire district of Van.

Summary

Souren D.Danielian

Key words – Nikoghos Sarafian, Diaspora Armenian literature, French Armenian poet, epic artistic mention, existential thinking, procession, remembrance of blood, journey, creative reflux and tide, “paper helmet”.

Diasporan Armenian poet and novelist Nikoghos Sarafian just recently finds the way to native reader, though there have been made some experiences to appropriate him before (Gegham Sevan, Vazgen Gabrielian, Artհur Andranikian and others).

Forty and more years after death, Nikoghos Sarafian hardly, but entirely can conquer artistic barrier in the field of epic poetry, with his poetic books, competing with Yeghishe Charents, Harut Kostandian, Vahan Tekeyan and other Armenian giant poets.

In our research we have examined characteristic of Sarafian’s poetry, tried to give new interpretation to his artistic recognition. We tried to evaluate the deep attention of literary critics of Diaspora towards Nikoghos Sarafian, that is typical to Harutyun Kyurkjian, Grigor Pyltian and others.