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THE PHENOMENON OF PARUYR SEVAK
On the 100th anniversary of his birth

This article is dedicated to the centenary of the birth of the Armenian writer Paruyr Sevak: a distinguished poet, literary critic, and interpreter. It offers a renewed characterization and interpretation of his artistic universe, emphasizing the distinctiveness of his poetic and scholarly contributions. The analysis situates Sevak within the context of his time while underscoring the enduring relevance of his works beyond their historical moment, framed through the lens of contemporary literary thought. Sevak himself once remarked: “We are getting old, Paruyr Sevak, we are getting old, my dear.” However, he did not reach old age, remaining forever 47. Had his “scissored life” not been prematurely interrupted, it might have been possible to celebrate his centenary in his presence. Tragically, his premonitions regarding an untimely death materialized on June 17, 1971.

Paruyr Sevak is a multifaceted intellectual figure. As a poet of profound insight, he also made significant scholarly contributions to the fields of literary history—particularly medieval literature and Sayat-Nova studies—literary theory, and criticism. Additionally, he bequeathed to subsequent generations high-quality translations of works by Spanish, Russian, and European authors. These spheres of activity were complementary rather than discrete. As an innovative poet and accomplished theorist, Sevak opposed poetic self-sufficiency, insularity, and the repetitive tendencies of traditional ashugh-style poetry. Yet, he acknowledged the brilliance of Sayat-Nova, whom he considered a leading poet of the late medieval period. With deliberate intent, Sevak sought to enhance the artistic prestige of Armenian literature, striving to overcome its limitations and align it with the global intellectual and artistic developments of his time. His ultimate aim was to position Armenian poetry as a peer among the literary achievements of the world’s leading nations.

The article further examines the distinctive features of Sevak’s figurative thinking, addressing key ideological, thematic, and aesthetic aspects of notable works, including Anlreli Zangakatun and Eradzayn Patarag. Special attention is devoted to several pivotal poems from the collections Mardy Api Mej and Yeghici Luys, revealing their thematic depth and interpretative layers.

THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF A HISTORICAL FACT
In the context of the cognitive functions of the historian

In historical science, both the concept of historical fact and the role of the historian are theoretically crucial elements without which a well-founded, true history cannot exist. Without historical facts, there is essentially no history. A historical fact gains its significance when it demonstrates causal connections with other facts across time and space. Through systematic and logical presentation of these connections, it becomes possible to illuminate particular historical events or episodes, and more broadly, to construct a substantiated, content-rich, and scientifically sound historical narrative.

History as a science primarily studies the past of people and societies. Therefore, interpreting and presenting historical experiences and lessons holds practical significance for present and future generations. A historical fact represents an undeniable truth from the past that must not be subject to distortion or falsification. True history is built upon such historical facts.

History, as factual memory of the past, is preserved in diverse historical sources: written, oral (including narratives), material artifacts, and other documents. These sources can be classified as direct or indirect, primary or secondary in importance. Direct sources provide immediate coverage of events or phenomena in their temporal and spatial context, while indirect sources, though not directly connected to the events, can contribute valuable context and supporting information. Original sources generally offer the highest reliability and credibility.

Throughout history, various factors subjective, ideological, political, and class-based have led to distortions and falsifications of historical facts. Historical literature reveals that such falsifications have occurred across all countries and periods. Notably, the Soviet Union and its historiography in the 20th century exemplified systematic historical distortion in service of building a “communist society.” Our theoretical analysis draws primarily from episodes in Armenian history to illustrate these points.

A historian must possess various qualities and characteristics personal, professional, civic, and academic including proper education, professional expertise, a developed worldview, and understanding of environmental and social
conditions. Without professional historians, true history cannot be documented. The historian must: rely exclusively on historical facts, maintain high scientific standards, demonstrate moral consciousness and impartiality, master historical theory and methodology, select appropriate research topics, thoroughly collect, study, and evaluate sources.

Based on these principles, historians must present authentic history through meaningful analysis, providing scientifically grounded and comprehensive conclusions. Their work should offer educational value and guidance for present and future generations. Finally, while maintaining commitment to historical accuracy, historians must balance professional objectivity with appropriate recognition of national identity, when relevant.

ARMENIAN REVOLUTIONARY FEDERATION IN THE POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF THE NEAR EAST AND EASTERN EUROPE AT THE END OF THE 19TH CENTURY AND THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY

On the eve of the pivotal events of 1908-1909, which were crucial for the Constitutional Revolution in Iran, a debate unfolded within the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) Dashnaktsutyun regarding the party’s participation in the ongoing internal political struggles in Turkey. The party’s leader, Rostom, suspended his comrades’ revolutionary activities in Turkey while simultaneously encouraging the extension of similar processes in Persia.

For the ARF Dashnaktsutyun, the establishment of solidarity with the Persian constitutionalists was tied not only to the objectives arising from the party’s membership in the Socialist International but also to the recognition of the civilizational affinity between the two peoples. Meanwhile, the objectives of Russian imperialism and Pan-Turkists coincided on the matter of blockading and disrupting the prospects for Iran’s revival. Consequently, during this same period, the activities of Social Democrats and other revolutionary groups representing the Caucasian Tatars in Persia were fueled not only by the Russian Police Department’s intent to counterbalance the ARF Dashnaktsutyun’s actions but also by Turkish authorities, who sought to establish their presence in certain regions of Atrpatakan (Azerbaijan).

This was compounded by the ARF Dashnaktsutyun’s selfless support for the defense of Tabriz, led by Rostom and his associates, which culminated in the June 1909 victory of the Constitutional Revolution. Following this victory, during the formation of a new government, thanks to Yeprem Davtyan—known as the “Garibaldi of Persia”—the multinational revolutionary underground operating in the country began viewing the ARF Dashnaktsutyun and its leaders as military and political guarantors of the revolution’s success. However, unlike the Dashnaktsutyun, figures representing the Caucasian Tatars continued their intrigues behind the back of the Persian Constitutional Revolution.

The Young Turks also became increasingly active, attempting to counterbalance the revolutionary movement unfolding in Iran. Recognizing the exceptional authority and influence of Yeprem Davtyan, Chief of Tehran Police, as a potential hindrance to their efforts, the Young Turks sought to win his favor and utilize his extraordinary military talent, inviting him to Turkey to participate in the Italo-Turkish War or the Libyan Campaign.

By the end of 1911, deepening contradictions between the ARF Dashnaktsutyun and the Young Turks, coupled with the perilous situation developing around Persia between 1910 and 1912, made it unthinkable for Yeprem to accept such an invitation. While constitutionalists heroically repelled the return of reactionary forces, Tsarist Russia and the British Empire hastened to solidify the 1907 agreement dividing Persia into spheres of influence.

As a result, the leadership of the Constitutional Revolution, relying on the determination of Persian patriots and ARF Dashnaktsutyun fighters assembled in the Majlis, made a decisive decision. On February 2, 1911, they invited American William Morgan Shuster to Persia as the government’s financial adviser and chief treasurer. Shuster, a genuine supporter of Persian and Armenian revolutionaries and their heroic commander Yeprem Davtyan, played a pivotal role.

Although the subsequent attempt at revenge by Mohammad Ali Shah was thwarted by Yeprem Davtyan’s detachments, which defeated the Shah’s supporters and Turkmen tribesmen during the battles of September 1911, the Tsarist government, alarmed by Shuster’s reforms, severed diplomatic relations and sent troops to Persia on November 8, 1911. The weak and vulnerable Iranian government was forced to concede to the Russo-British ultimatum of November 29, expelling Shuster from Persia and dissolving the Majlis
on December 20.

It seemed as though the revolution had come to an end. However, as a symbol of the joint struggle of the Armenian and Persian peoples for freedom, Yeprem Davtyan continued his fight against reactionary forces until his martyrdom on May 6, 1912.

RUDOLF STEINER’S CRITIQUE OF KANT’S THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

This article presents an examination of the critique of Kant’s epistemology by the Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy. Steiner was once accused of presenting this critique in a disorganized manner across his various philosophical works; however, his aim was not to critique Kant’s epistemology per se, but to develop fundamental and coherent and foundational epistemological foundations. He believed this was possible on the condition of breaking free from the vicious cycle of concepts within Kant’s theory of knowledge and through the scientific elaboration of the foundational approaches to cognition in Goethe’s philosophy.

The primary goal of this article has been to classify and systematically analyze the most significant concepts of Kant’s epistemology that Steiner targets in his critique—either rejecting them, as in the case of the “thing-in-itself,” or imbuing them with new content, such as the concept of “experience.” According to Steiner, the failure of traditional theories of knowledge stems from their lack of a basis in the study of the nature of cognition, and the question “what is cognition?” does not precede the question “what is cognition?” Thus, we first address how Steiner defines cognition in “Truth and Science.” We refer to Kant’s classification of the cognitive process sensory, judgmental, and rational and note that, for Steiner, the sensory aspect is considered not as cognition but merely as perception. According to him, cognition begins with conceptual observation, while he views the observation of the thinking process as the highest form of cognition.

We also examined the genealogy of Kant’s theory of knowledge according to another of Steiner’s works, “The Secrets of Philosophy,” and highlighted the contradiction that, according to Steiner, Kant resolved by accepting the limits of cognition, leading to subjectivism and dualism. We then demonstrated how Steiner reveals the errors of dualism in “The Philosophy of Freedom” and characterizes it as a necessary intermediate stage to be overcome in the process of cognition. The world is given to us as duality, while cognition processes it into unity. Kant’s “thing-in-itself” is nothing but an empty abstraction; the supposed separation of consciousness from the “thing-in-itself” is an illusion. In cognition, the boundaries between essence and phenomenon dissolve, and the phenomenon presents itself to us as a manifested essence. Even if it presents itself to us as an idea, this is only at the initial stage of simple perception and observation of the phenomenon, whereas in the cognitive process, the impartial and objective nature of thought connects and unifies the diversity of perceptions and observations, resulting in ideas being recognized and ceasing to be merely ideas.

In this article, we also explored the differences between Kant’s and Steiner’s understandings of “experience” as defined in Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason” and Steiner’s “The Epistemological Foundations of Goethe’s Worldview,” demonstrating the new content that Steiner attributes to this concept, arguing that thinking should also be regarded as a fact of experience. We illustrated how Steiner describes the process of thinking becoming unrecognized due to the focus on the object, asserting that without thought, the image of the world cannot be considered either objective or complete, and that it would be entirely arbitrary to regard the sum of what we know about an object solely through perception as a complete whole, while the result of thoughtful observation is seen as something additional that has no connection to the object itself.

Theres is an attempt to show how Steiner refutes Kant’s approach that limits cognition based on the capacities of the human spirit, asserting that our spiritual organization inherently includes the ability for fully adequate knowledge of things; otherwise, knowledge would be impossible.

ON THE PROBABLE HISTORICAL PROTOTYPES OF HAYKAK AND HIS OPPONENT – 2024-3

Sargis G. Petrosyan (Gyumri)
Doctor of Historical Sciences

Keywords – inscriptions, Haya, Haykak, Rid-Teshub, Naram- Suen, Belokhos, Armanum, Apisal, Khutimu.

Summary

Eblaitic cuneiform texts testify that in the 3rd millennium B.C. there was a country Hutimu in the mountains of the Armenian Taurus. In Akkadian sources it is called Apisal. The roots of those toponyms are preserved in the Sasun districts of Hoyt/Hut, Salno-dzor (“Salno Gorge”), and Salna-lerink (“Salna Mountains”).

The Eblaitic texts also preserve the name of the king of this country in the form of Haya (Haia). Before him, the Eblaites called the king of the neighbouring known country Armi (Akkad.: Armanum, in the basin of the Western Tigris), who is identified with Hayk – ethnarch of the Armenians. Supposedly, the second Haya is the grandchild of the first Haya/Hayk, as he bore the name Haykak in Movses Khorenatsi’s “History of Armenia”. In the word Haykak we can see the name Hayk and the diminutive suffix -ak. No doubt Haykak (Haya the second) is the same person as the contemporary of Naram-Suen, the king of Akkad, Rid-Teshub (Rid- D IM), whom Akkadian sources consider the king of the country of Armanum.

At that time, when Rid-Teshub ruled the Apisal/Hutimu country, he led the struggle against Naram-Suen, that is why he was elected king of the Armanum country. In Movses Khorenatsi’s testimonies, Haykak’s adversary is a certain Belokhos, whose prototype (as an epic image) was undoubtedly the historical Naram-Suen. There is a mention that Haykak lived in the time of Belokhos and, having rashly arranged troubles, died in them” (Khorenatsi, I, 19). So Haykak, i.e. Rid-Teshub really died at the hands of Naram-Suen, in spite of the fact that in his inscription the Akkadian king speaks only about the capture of his adversary. As for Naram-Suen, he was eventually killed in battle during the invasion of Mesopotamia by the Kutian – hill tribes of the Armenian Taurus.

THE ARMENIAN REVOLUTIONARY FEDERATION IN THE POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF ADVANCED ASIAN AND EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AT THE END OF THE 19th CENTURY – THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY – 2024-3

Part V. ARF’s key role in ensuring the European Orientation of the Iran Constitutional Revolution in 1905-1912

Gevorg S. Khoudinyan
Doctor of Historical Sciences

Keywords – AR Federation, Iran (Persia), Constitutional Revolution, ties and relations, ARF Fourth General Meeting, Socialist International, Rostom, France, Bulgaria, European Orientation.

Summary

Until now, the deep connections and relations of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation with the forces and figures who participated and played a role in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran have not been revealed, in the context of which it is only possible to understand the real reasons for the active participation of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation in that revolution. After the 4th general meeting of the ARF (February-May 1907) and especially after the Stuttgart Congress of the Socialist International, at the end of 1907, the institutionalization of the cooperation of the ARF with the opposition and revolutionary forces of both the Ottoman Empire and Persia took place. As a result, the party, which showed serious fluctuations until then, very quickly reoriented itself towards the Iranian Constitutional Revolution that began in 1905, but accelerated only in 1906, taking upon itself the difficult task of ensuring its European orientation. The Constitutional Revolution of Iran was an attempt to overthrow the Ghajar dynasty of Turkic origin ruling the country and restore the historical mission of Persia as one of the key countries that laid the foundations of world civilization for centuries. The policy of ARF Dashnaktsutyun to support that attempt was the continuation of the centuries-old civilizational mission of Armenia and Armenians to spread Hellenistic culture, Christian value system and then European Enlightenment ideas in Asian environments.

The cooperation of the ARF Dashnaktsutyun with the leaders of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution acquired a coordinated character as a result of the arrival in Tehran in December 1907 of the party representative Rostom (Stepan Zorian) and his negotiations with the leaders of the Iranian Majlis and influential figures of the Constitutional Revolution in the first days of January 1908.

In the person of Rostom, the Iranian constitutionalists were dealing with a political figure who had been acquainted with the political realities of Europe for many years and laid the lasting foundations of ARF connections and relations in their system, and at the same time, a personality with a great experience of revolutionary struggle in Western Armenia and Transcaucasia. Considering the difficult situation of the Balkan countries and the inevitability of a new war with the Ottoman Empire, he attached great importance to the creation of an alliance between independent Bulgaria and Persia.

During Rostom’s negotiations with the Mejlis leadership, the party undertakes to carry out political-relational and propaganda work in Europe in favor of the constitutional movement of Persia. The leaders of the Mejlis were working to establish contacts with the political and even state circles of France through the ARF Dashnaktsutyun and to get a state loan from that country to fill the empty coffers of Persia.

Rostom’s dream of forming a Bulgaria-Iran alliance and ensuring France’s support for Iran’s Constitutional Movement remained unfulfilled. The subsequent behavior of the global and regional powers, which became an obstacle to its implementation, showed that for them the revival of Iran was a natural obstacle to the implementation of the Russian-British plans to divide Persia into spheres of influence and then to ravage Armenia. For this reason, the interests of the Armenian people, and currently, the statehood of Armenia, demand not to forget the visionary plans of our ancestors. Therefore, it is gratifying that currently conditions are gradually being created to deepen the cooperation between France and Iran, which is being strengthened through Armenia, and to involve Greece in it instead of Bulgaria.

PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS OF GRIGOR ZOHRAP’S PESMISM – 2024-3

Aram G. Aleksanyan
Candidate of Philological Sciences

Keywords – Grigor Zohrap, pessimism, O. Comte, H. Spencer, J. J. Rousseau, A. Schopenhauer, conscience, paradox, philosophy of will, rationality of compassion.

Summary

 
Grigor Zohrap’s biophilosophy is combined especially with the study of pessimistic teachings. The monastic understandings in Zohrap’s views are, in fact, combined with J. J. Rousseau and A. to Schopenhauer’s philosophy of compassion, forming an original existential philosophy that is essentially pessimistic in nature. The problems of life, death, conscience, right, crime, law, forgiveness, moral, family, love, gender relationships are examined and formulated in the context of pessimistic logic, which considers “natural” and “biological” as the fundamental causes of human behavior. Moreover, Rousseau nature, and later Schopenhauer identify the will with the body. Zohrap’s recognition of the meaning of life, the advice of being, comes to the following generalization: a) life is suffering, b) life is futile, c) happiness is an illusion, deceptive and fleeting. Pessimism proposes several ways to overcome this situation, which are also present in the context of Zohrap’s novels. Manifestations of will are characterized by a certain gradation: a) blind, unconscious desire to live, b) self-awareness, c) self-denial. With the extinction of will, a person acquires a blissful state of being. If the will chooses self-denial in the terrible dilemma set before it, then, according to Schopenhauer, we enter, as the mystics say, the kingdom of bliss. According to them, it is the world of pure morality, where virtue begins with mercy and suffering and ends with asceticism, which leads to complete liberation, and the moral foundations that lead to it are sympathy, compassion, and mercy. The will in a person is the essence in itself, the grain and the root, and the intellect is secondary, conditional.

One of the means of liberation from suffering is considered by pessimists to be aesthetic discretion, which is observed in the desert of oasis life. Aesthetic enjoyment is essentially free will. The essence of things is revealed only in front of the aesthetic genius’s will free and unparticipated, that is, in front of a purely objective view. What is recognized in things is not the individual, but the eternal, not the temporal, but the idea of the thing. Art embodies that idea. It emerges not in relation to its body, not expressed in space, time and causality, but as the pure essence of things. Hence, to depict life means to consider it in relation to the deepest layer. Zohrap’s “life as it is” principle tends to the essence of things and phenomena, and that essence is the will itself.

KEROPE PATKANYAN AND THE INDO-EUROPEAN CHARACTER OF ARMENIAN ISSUES AND THEORY OF ARMENIAN DIALECTS – 2024-3

Vazgen G. Hambardzumyan
Doctor of Philological Sciences

Keywords – Russian oriental studies, Armenian studies, Armenology, Armenian historians, literary monuments, Urartian studies, humanitarian science, scientific consultant, originator of foundations.

Summary

In the second half of the previous century, the Armenian culture experienced significant development in the environment of the Russian Empire, the role of the St. Petersburg academic institution was particularly significant, where Kerope Patkanyan carried out his extensive scientific activities (1833-1889). His contribution to the progress of Armenian philology and linguistics is great. He represented various fields of Armenology and Armenian studies, the best researcher and spreader of relevant knowledge both in Russia and Europe. Patkanyan is an internationally recognized Armenologist.

The years of his scientific activity were the 1860s to the 1880s, a short period, and the famous scientist left a rich legacy, became a tireless organizer of science, mentored students who later gained great recognition in various fields of humanitarian science in general, and became a concerned and serious advisor about the Armenian language of many European armenologists in their scientific activities.

Patkanyan’s works are quite impressive in terms of their nature, volume and coverage of fields. He left literary-artistic and bibliographic works, scientific publications of historiographical and translational works, wrote concise and fundamental works on the Armenian language and Armenian dialects, has a theory with a wide coverage of the material on issues of historical and comparative study of Armenian, his works on Armenian philology, ethnography (studies of sources), lexicography, but also general oriental studies, and urartian studies.

Patkanyan’s linguistic heritage has been addressed to some extent, but not with a theoretically sound assessment. He is rightfully the predictor of the foundations of the theory of Armenian dialects and the classification of dialects “with various features” using the internal means of the language (phonetic system, vocabulary and grammatical structure). Such a classification of Armenian dialects is the contribution of a famous linguist to Armenian dialectology. His scientific legacy is a great contribution to the development of modern Armenian studies.